Negative Reinforcement: Definition, Examples, & Theory​

The concept of negative reinforcement is informed by the theory of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is a psychological theory of learning that was developed by psychologist B. F. Skinner in the mid-20th century. It is a form of what is known as associative learning in which a particular behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). That is, in operant conditioning, individuals learn to associate their actions with positive or negative outcomes. This, in turn, influences their likelihood of repeating or avoiding those behaviors.

Key components of operant conditioning include:

​Reinforcement

This is the process of strengthening a behavior by providing a reward or positive consequence immediately after the behavior occurs. Positive reinforcement involves adding something pleasant, like giving a treat for good behavior, while negative reinforcement involves removing something aversive, like a loud alarm turning off after the fastening of a seat belt.

​Punishment

This is the process of weakening a behavior by introducing an aversive consequence or removing a pleasant one after the behavior occurs. Positive punishment involves adding something unpleasant, like giving a time-out for bad behavior, while negative punishment involves removing something desirable, like taking away a toy for bad behavior.

Extinction

If a behavior is no longer reinforced, it may eventually become extinct. In other words, if a behavior is no longer followed by a reward or the removal of an aversive condition, it is likely to decrease in frequency.

​​Shaping

This involves gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved. An example is teaching a dog to perform a complex trick by rewarding it for each step toward the final behavior.

Operant conditioning is used to explain how we acquire a wide range of behaviors, from simple skills to complex habits. It has practical applications in various fields including education, parenting, animal training, and therapy. By understanding the principles of operant conditioning, people can shape and modify behavior in a deliberate and systematic way.​

As previously mentioned, negative reinforcement is an application of the principles of operant conditioning in which a behavior is reinforced because it produces the removal or avoidance of some unwanted stimulus or situation. Let’s go through a few examples of negative reinforcement in real life.

Below are a few examples of negative reinforcement that you may have experienced.

​Seat Belt Reminder

Many cars have seat belt reminder systems that emit a beeping sound until the driver fastens their seat belt. The aversive stimulus here is the annoying sound, and it stops (is removed) when the driver fastens their seat belt. This encourages the driver to put on their seat belt to escape the aversive stimulus.

​Homework Completion

​A student might experience anxiety and stress about not completing their homework. This unpleasant emotional state is removed or reduced when they complete their homework, which can reinforce the behavior of doing homework.

​Headache Relief

​If a person has a headache (aversive stimulus), they may take a pain reliever to alleviate the pain. Taking the pain reliever is reinforced by the relief of the headache.

​Turning Off an Alarm

​When an alarm clock goes off in the morning, it produces an aversive noise. Pressing the snooze button or turning off the alarm removes the unpleasant sound, and this can reinforce the behavior of waking up.

​Housecleaning

A messy home can be aversive to some people. The behavior of cleaning and tidying up can remove the aversive stimulus of clutter, making the person more likely to engage in cleaning activities in the future.

​Dental Hygiene

Visits to the dentist can be painful if you aren’t taking proper care of your teeth. The desire to have less painful dental visits can reinforce good dental hygiene behaviors.​

Negative reinforcement and negative punishment are two different concepts in behavioral psychology, and they have opposite effects on behavior (Papageorgi, 2021). Here is a brief breakdown of how these two concepts differ:

​Negative Reinforcement:
​

• Objective: Negative reinforcement aims to increase the likelihood of a behavior by removing or avoiding an aversive or unpleasant stimulus when the behavior occurs.
• Process: In negative reinforcement, a behavior is strengthened because it leads to the removal or avoidance of something undesirable.
• Example: A student studies hard to avoid failing a test. The aversive stimulus is the threat of failure, and the behavior of studying is reinforced by its removal.

Negative Punishment:
​

• Objective: Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, seeks to decrease the likelihood of a behavior by removing a desirable or positive stimulus when the behavior occurs.
• Process: In negative punishment, a behavior is weakened because it results in the removal of something rewarding or pleasant.
• Example: A child loses their video game privileges (a desirable stimulus) for misbehaving. The behavior that led to the punishment (misbehavior) is less likely to occur in the future.

Negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement are both concepts in behavioral psychology that involve increasing the likelihood of a behavior, but they differ in how they achieve this reinforcement and the type of stimuli involved (Papageorgi, 2021).

Here is a brief breakdown of how they differ:

​​Negative Reinforcement:

• Objective: Negative reinforcement aims to increase the likelihood of a behavior by removing or avoiding an aversive or unpleasant stimulus when the behavior occurs.
• Process: In negative reinforcement, a behavior is strengthened because it leads to the removal or avoidance of something undesirable. The behavior helps escape or avoid the aversive stimulus.
• Example: If a person fastens their seat belt to stop the annoying seat belt reminder sound in their car, the removal of the aversive sound reinforces the behavior of wearing the seat belt.

Positive Reinforcement:

• Objective: Positive reinforcement aims to increase the likelihood of a behavior by adding a rewarding or pleasant stimulus when the behavior occurs.
• Process: In positive reinforcement, a behavior is strengthened because it results in the addition of something enjoyable or desirable. The behavior is encouraged by the prospect of obtaining a positive stimulus.
• Example: If a child receives a sticker for completing their homework, the addition of the sticker as a reward reinforces the behavior of doing homework.

In summary, the key difference between negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement is the nature of the stimulus involved. Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by removing or avoiding something unpleasant, while positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by adding something enjoyable or rewarding. Both types of reinforcement are used in behavior modification to encourage desired behaviors, but they operate in different ways.

The negative reinforcement trap refers to a situation in which undesirable behaviors are reinforced via negative reinforcement, creating a cycle of behavior that is difficult to break. In other words, the actions taken to remove or avoid an aversive stimulus reinforce a behavior that is not in the individual’s best interest (Iwata, 1987).

In a negative reinforcement trap, individuals may engage in behaviors that provide temporary relief from aversive situations but do not lead to long-term solutions. These behaviors may be counterproductive, as they can perpetuate the cycle of aversive situations and the need for temporary relief.

For example, consider a young person who struggles in school. They have a hard time making friends and feel that the curriculum is useless and only serves to make them feel inferior to their peers. They find that when they skip school, they feel better because they have avoided all of the unwanted stimuli they consistently face at school. Thus, the act of skipping school becomes negatively reinforced. However, skipping too many days of school is not in this student’s best interest.​

To break a negative reinforcement trap, it’s important to identify the underlying issues, seek more adaptive coping mechanisms, and find ways to address the aversive situations more effectively. Cognitive behavioral therapy and other therapeutic interventions can be helpful in identifying and addressing negative reinforcement traps (Iwata, 1987).

Motivation to perform well is an important aspect of the workplace. Sometimes the promise of a monetary reward works as motivation, such as a quarterly bonus, and other times praise and recognition suffice, like winning employee of the month. Both of these motivational tactics are a kind of positive reinforcement. That is, if you work hard and do well, you are given a reward, which will likely make you more inclined to keep up the good work.

It is also possible for negative reinforcement to be a motivational tactic. Negative reinforcement in the workplace could take the form of avoiding a punishment. For example, imagine that employees incur a financial loss at the end of the year if they fail to reach some specified target. Improving workflow to avoid this punishment would be an example of negative reinforcement (Magoon & Critchfield, 2008).​

The extent to which negative reinforcement is an effective tactic for motivating people in the workplace is still unclear, and more research is needed to determine its efficacy (Perez, 2021).

Both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors can be motivated by the desire to escape or avoid some undesirable experience. For example, a student who drops out of school or is consistently truant may do so in order to escape discomfort or negative experiences in the classroom. On the other hand, wanting to avoid the guilt and shame of failing a test may encourage a student to study more (Gunter & Coutinho, 1997).

As with negative reinforcement in the workplace, it is unclear the overall influence this form of operant conditioning has on students and if it could be effectively leveraged to improve the experience and performance of students in the classroom (Gunter & Coutinho, 1997).​

• Gunter, P. L., & Coutinho, M. J. (1997). Negative reinforcement in classrooms: What we’re beginning to learn. Teacher Education and Special Education, 20(3), 249–264.
• Iwata, B. A. (1987). Negative reinforcement in applied behavior analysis: An emerging technology. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20(4), 361–378.
• Koob, G. F. (2013). Negative reinforcement in drug addiction: the darkness within. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23(4), 559–563.
• Magoon, M. A., & Critchfield, T. S. (2008). Concurrent schedules of positive and negative reinforcement: differential-impact and differential-outcomes hypothesis. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 90(1), 1–22.
• Papageorgi, I. (2021). Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment. In Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science (pp. 6079–6081). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
• Perez, R. (2021). Investigating the effects of utilizing motivative augmentals that emphasize positive versus negative reinforcement. California State University, Fresno.
• Staddon, J. E., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 115–144.