Operant Conditioning: Definition, Examples, & Psychology​

Operant conditioning is a fundamental concept in psychology. It describes the process where behavior changes depending on the consequences of the behavior (American Psychological Association, 2023). For example, if a behavior is rewarded (positively reinforced), the likelihood of it being repeated increases. And if it’s punished, the likelihood of it being repeated decreases. This type of conditioning might also be referred to as “instrumental conditioning” or “operant learning.” ​

B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist, behaviorist, and inventor, developed his theory of operant conditioning in the mid-20th century (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). While other researchers had already described some of the basic principles of operant conditioning, Skinner refined and systematized these concepts. He was the first to provide a more comprehensive and detailed analysis of operant conditioning. 

While many researchers today suggest that both mind and environment contribute to our behavior, Skinner did not. He described himself as a “radical behaviorist,” positing that all of our actions are a result of our environment. Therefore, we can change our behavior by changing the environment. 

Skinner’s work focused on observable, measurable behavior, and he is best known for his experiments with animals, particularly pigeons and rats. He developed a range of experimental techniques and apparatus to study the effects of reinforcement and punishment on behavior.

As mentioned above, the key principle of operant conditioning is that behavior is shaped by its consequences. Here’s a rundown of the basics of some of the underlying principles. We’ll get into more detail on some of these in the next sections. 

Reinforcement:
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• Positive reinforcement: strengthening a behavior by adding a desirable consequence
• Negative reinforcement: strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus

Punishment:
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• Positive punishment: weakening a behavior by adding an unpleasant consequence
• Negative punishment: weakening a behavior by removing a desirable stimulus

Extinction: A behavior is weakened or stopped when the reinforcement that’s maintaining it is removed. 

Shaping: Shaping is the process of gradually training a new behavior. It involves positively reinforcing successive approximations of the target behavior.

Schedules of reinforcement: These are the patterns or frequency in which reinforcements are delivered. Different schedules can affect how quickly and how strongly a behavior is learned. Types of schedules include (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003):
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• Continuous: reinforcement every time the behavior occurs
• Fixed-ratio: reward after the behavior occurs a set number of times
• Variable ratio: reward after an unpredictable number of responses (think of gambling)
• Fixed-interval: reward after a set period of time
• Variable-interval: reward after an unpredictable period of time

An operant conditioning chamber, often referred to as a Skinner box, is a device used in experimental psychology to study and analyze the behavior of animals, usually rats or pigeons, in response to specific stimuli and reinforcement. The chamber was developed by the psychologist B. F. Skinner, and it became a key tool in the study of operant conditioning.

The operant conditioning chamber is typically a small, enclosed environment with controlled conditions. The chamber is equipped with mechanisms, such as levers or buttons, that the animal can manipulate to produce a response. Sometimes there are also stimuli such as lights or sounds that can be presented as cues (Sakagami & Lattal, 2016). The controlled environment allows for precise manipulation of variables, and the systematic observation of behavior enables researchers to draw conclusions about the principles that govern learning and behavior.

An animal learns to associate its behavior with specific outcomes, either reinforcement or punishment. Reinforcement strengthens the likelihood of the behavior being repeated, while punishment decreases the likelihood.

Positive reinforcement is one of the key concepts within operant conditioning. It involves receiving a positive stimulus or reward following a desired behavior to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. In other words, when a behavior is followed by something you want, you are more likely to engage in that behavior again.

Key points:
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• Positive reinforcement aims to increase the frequency of a behavior by adding a positive stimulus. It’s often referred to as “rewarding” behavior.
• It’s based on the principle that behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences are more likely to be repeated.
• The positive stimulus should be something meaningful and desirable.
• Reinforcement is most effective when it occurs immediately after the desired behavior.
• Consistency is crucial for the success of positive reinforcement.

Examples:
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• Giving a child a sticker for completing their homework
• Praising an employee for a job well done
• Giving a dog a treat for sitting on command
• Earning points in a video game for completing a level
• Receiving a bonus for meeting sales targets

​Here’s my personal example of positive reinforcement. Just about every time my husband and I eat together, our dog relentlessly begs him for food. My husband says with a groan, “Ugh! Why does she do this to me and not you?” Duh . . . he’s been reinforcing the behavior for years.

Negative reinforcement isn’t the same as punishment. Reinforcement, whether positive or negative, always involves strengthening a behavior. While positive reinforcement involves the addition of a desirable stimulus to strengthen a behavior, negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of something undesirable.

Here’s a breakdown of negative reinforcement:
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• Aversive stimulus: Negative reinforcement begins with the presence of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus. This is usually something uncomfortable or undesirable, such as loud noise, pain, or an unpleasant task.
• Behavioral response: The individual engages in a specific behavior that leads to the removal or avoidance of the aversive stimulus. This behavior is strengthened or reinforced by the removal of the unpleasant stimulus.
• Increase in behavior: As a result of the negative reinforcement, the likelihood of the individual repeating the behavior in the future increases. The removal of the aversive stimulus serves as a consequence that reinforces the behavior.

Examples:
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• Taking a pain reliever to stop a headache: The removal of pain reinforces the behavior of taking the medication.
• Fastening a seatbelt to silence the car alarm: The removal of the annoying sound reinforces the behavior of buckling up.
• Completing homework to avoid a parent’s nagging: The removal of nagging reinforces the behavior of finishing schoolwork.

My dog often uses negative reinforcement on me. She whines incessantly (trust me, it’s not pleasant) until I give her what she wants. Once I get her food or pay attention to her, she removes the negative stimulus. Hmmmm . . . who’s the trainer here?

Extinction in operant conditioning is weakening and possibly eventually stopping a learned behavior by removing a positive reinforcement. 

However, when the reinforcement stops, the behavior may initially increase in an attempt to get the reinforcement back. This is called an “extinction burst.” But then, when the reinforcement doesn’t return, the behavior gradually decreases and may extinguish completely.

For example, let’s say a vending machine stops dispensing candy when a certain button is pressed. Eventually you’ll stop trying. Another example is when a dog that has been reinforced for begging at the table by receiving scraps of food eventually stops begging when the scraps are no longer given.​

Shaping is a specific technique within operant conditioning that involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. It’s a way of teaching complex behaviors that might not occur naturally by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable steps.

Here’s how shaping works:
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1. Identify the target behavior: This is the specific behavior you want to teach.
2. Break it down into smaller steps: Identify the smaller, easier behaviors that lead up to the target behavior.
3. Reinforce each step: Reward any behavior that gets closer to the target behavior, even if it’s just a small improvement.
4. Gradually raise the criteria: As the learner progresses, start reinforcing only behaviors that are closer to the target behavior.
5. Continue until the target behavior is achieved: Keep reinforcing the desired behavior until it’s reliably performed.

​Examples of shaping:
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• Teaching a dog to sit: You might start by rewarding the dog for looking at you, then for lowering its head, then for bending its legs, and finally for sitting fully.
• Teaching a child to play a musical instrument: You might start by rewarding them for holding the instrument correctly, then for making simple sounds, then for playing simple melodies, and so on.
• Improving athletic performance: Coaches often use shaping to help athletes refine their technique by reinforcing small improvements in form and movement.

Operant conditioning plays a significant role in therapy, particularly in behavioral therapy approaches. By understanding how consequences (reinforcement and punishment) affect behavior, therapists can use operant conditioning techniques to help people modify unwanted behaviors and learn new, healthier ones.

Here are some examples of how operant conditioning is used in therapy:
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• Managing obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): gradually decreasing reinforcement for compulsions while introducing coping mechanisms for managing anxiety
• Treating phobias: gradually exposing a person to their fear in a safe environment while using relaxation techniques as reinforcement
• Combating depression: setting achievable goals and rewarding oneself for completing them to increase motivation and combat feelings of helplessness
• Improving communication skills: providing positive feedback and encouragement for assertive communication while ignoring or redirecting passive aggression or hurtful behavior
• Treating eating disorders: implementing a token economy system where healthy eating choices earn points that you can exchange for rewards

• Positive reinforcement: A teacher praises a student for completing their homework on time, and as a result the student is more likely to continue completing assignments promptly.
  
• Negative reinforcement: A teacher allows a student to skip a less preferred task (like reading aloud) after they have successfully completed a more challenging assignment. The removal of the undesirable task reinforces the completion of the more difficult one.
  
• Positive punishment: A teacher assigns extra homework to a student who consistently disrupts the class. The added workload serves as a consequence to discourage disruptive behavior.
  
• Negative punishment: A teacher temporarily takes away a privilege, such as recess time, from a student who consistently fails to turn in assignments. This is done to decrease the likelihood of future instances of incomplete work.
  
• Extinction: A teacher ignores attention-seeking behavior, such as calling out without raising a hand, which can lead to the extinction of that behavior if the lack of attention makes it less reinforcing for the student.
  
• Shaping: A teacher rewards a student for progressively completing more of a challenging task, such as writing a long essay, gradually shaping the behavior toward the desired outcome.
  

• American Psychological Association. (2023). Operant conditioning. In APA dictionary of psychology. Retrieved January 2, 2024, from https://dictionary.apa.org/operant-conditioning 
• Sakagami, T., & Lattal, K. A. (2016). The other shoe: An early operant conditioning chamber for pigeons. The Behavior Analyst, 39, 25–39.
• Staddon, J. E., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 115–144.